Morphology

All adjectives in Europic take the ending -a. However, unlike Esperanto, adjectives do not decline for case and number, and numerals and determiners are treated as other adjectives. The main difference between determiners and the rest of the adjective class is that determiners always precede the noun they modify, while other adjectives follow it.

Determiners include demonstratives and other adjectives which identify or distinguish a referent without describing or modifying it. The primary determiners in most languages are the articles (“the,” “a,” “an,” “some”) but Europic (deliberately) lacks both definite and indefinite articles. The main difference between determiners and other adjectives is that they precede the nouns they modify. Numbers and possessives may also be considered determiners, as can all of the adjectival correlatives. Some of the most common determiners are:

dra ‘another ’ fla ‘little, few’ flanta ‘little, few’ gra ‘much, many’ granta ‘much, many’ graya ‘many kinds of’ kwa ‘which’

kwanta ‘how much, how many’ kwaya ‘what kind of’ la ‘the’ lanta ‘so much, so many’ laya ‘such’ li-la ‘that’ na ‘no’

nanta ‘no, none’ ni-swa ‘any’ ni-swanta ‘any’ nwa ‘some’ nwanta ‘some’ pa ‘each, every’ panta ‘all’

spa ‘the same’ spanta ‘the same amount’ spaya ‘the same kind of’ swa ‘some’ swanta ‘some’ swaya ‘some kind of’ tci-la ‘this’

Possessive pronouns make up a small subset of determiners. They are formed by applying the adjective ending to the pronoun consonant stem:

Singular:			Plural:
Pronoun	Psn	Poss.	Pronoun	Psn	Poss.
mu ‘I, me’	1	ma ‘my’	mu-ya ‘we, us’	1	ma-ya ‘our’
mu-tu ‘you & I, we, us’	1+2	ma-ta ‘our’	mutu-ya ‘you (all) & I, we, us’	1+2	mata-ya ‘our’
tu ‘you, thou, thee’	2	ta ‘your, thy’	tu-ya ‘you’	2	ta-ya ‘your’
ru ‘he, she, him, her’	3	ra ‘his, her’	ru-ya ‘they, them’	3	ra-ya ‘their’
su ‘it’	3	sa ‘its’	su-ya ‘they, them’	3	sa-ya ‘their’

As adjectives, numbers always end in -a. The “teen” numbers are optionally composed as compounds comprised of deka followed by the second number, or in the usual manner of higher numbers. Higher numbers are rendered by reading the numbers in order written. (E.g. 123 = yuna-duwa-triya.) When a number ends in a single 0 (zero), it is read as deka; a final 00 is read as kenta, a final 000 as mila, and so on. (E.g. 890 = voka-nuva-deka, 8900 = voka-nuva-kenta.) Higher numbers beginning with 1 (yuna) may eliminate the word yuna. (E.g. 100 = yuna-kenta or simply kenta, cf. English 100 = one hundred or a hundred.)

Digits		Teens		Twenties		Tens		Exponents
0	nula	10	deka	20	duwa-deka	0	nula	10⁰	nula	10³	mila
1	yuna	11	deka-yuna	21	duwa-yuna	10	deka	10¹	deka	10⁶	mega
2	duwa	12	deka-duwa	22	duwa-duwa	20	duwa-deka	10²	kenta	10⁹	giga
3	triya	13	deka-triya	23	duwa-triya	30	triya-deka	10³	mila	10¹²	tera
4	tcera	14	deka-tcera	24	duwa-tcera	40	tcera-deka	10⁴	deka-mila	10¹⁵	peta
5	penta	15	deka-penta	25	duwa-penta	50	penta-deka	10⁵	kenta-mila	10¹⁸	heska
6	seca	16	deka-seca	26	duwa-seca	60	seca-deka	10⁶	mega	10²¹	zeta
7	siba	17	deka-siba	27	duwa-siba	70	siba-deka	10⁷	deka-mega	10²⁴	yota
8	voka	18	deka-voka	28	duwa-voka	80	voka-deka	10⁸	kenta-mega	10²⁷	rona
9	nuva	19	deka-nuva	29	duwa-nuva	90	nuva-deka	10⁹	giga	10³⁰	kweta

E.g.:

• 703 = siba-nula-triya
• 2916 = duwa-nuva-yuna-seca or duwa-nuva-deka-seca
• 8340 = voka-triya-tcera-deka
• 75600 = siba-penta-seca-kenta
• 90000 = nuva-deka-mila

There are some nuances, though. Many numbers have multiple forms (such as the “teens” shown above), which freely toggle between digits and multiples without ambiguity, but higher numbers can be more restrictive. For example, 210 must be rendered as duwa-kenta-deka or duwa-yuna-deka, as duwa-deka means 20. (The same is true for the “-10” of all hundreds.) It could also be rendered as duwa-yuna-nula, but using nula as a spoken number outside of very technical language is as awkward as using zero in a compound number in Ancient English, with one exception: The “ones” of the hundreds are usually preceded by kenta, e.g. 108 = kenta-nula-voka or yuna-nula-voka or indeed even yuna-kenta-voka.

1. 1 yuna
2. 10 deka
3. 100 kenta
4. 1,000 mila
5. 10,000 deka-mila
6. 100,000 kenta-mila
7. 1,000,000 mega
8. 1,000,000,000 giga

Numbers are easily expanded with various affixes, e.g.:

• -a: Cardinal, e.g. yuna ‘1’
• -al-: Fractional (divisions of a whole), e.g. tcera ‘4’ → tceralu ‘quarter, one fourth’
• -angl-: Geometric, e.g. voka ‘8’ → vokanglu ‘octogon’
• -em-: Ordinal, e.g. penta ‘5’ → pentema ‘fifth’
• -i: Adverbial (number of times), e.g. duwa ‘2’ → duwi ‘twice, two times’
• -upl-: Multiple, e.g. triya ‘3’ → triyupla ‘triple’

It should be noted that the original release of Europic used a decimal number system (as did all other languages of Europe at the time). In 2281ad, some thirty years after the fall of the ECA, the Europic-speaking Principality of Mediterania (yes, spelled like that) implemented a change to duodecimal (dozenal) number including revisions to the metric and calendar systems. This text deals exclusively with the pre-dozenal numbers; for more information on the dozenal system, see A Grammar of the Vulgar European Language by this author.

Correlatives are not a proper part of speech, but the term, which came into heavy use with the advent of Esperanto, is useful to describe a set of pronouns, determiners, adjectives, and adverbs made up of pronoun-like elements. They often exist in natural languages in incomplete sets (e.g. where, there, here but when, then, now.) A hallmark of auxiliary languages is that they usually have a complete set of correlatives. (Still, even Esperanto has nun, for example, instead of **tiam-ĉi). Anyway, I thought they made a nice bridge here between the pronouns and the adjectives.

	Interrogtv kwa-	Deixis la-	General swa-	Alternative dra-	Equative spa-	Negative na-	Paucal fla-	Quantal nwa-	Multal gra-	Universal pa-
Determiner -a	kwa ‘which’	la ‘that’	swa ‘some’	dra ‘another’	spa ‘the same’	na ‘no’	fla ‘few, little’	nwa ‘some’	gra ‘many, much’	pa ‘all’
Animate -ru	kwaru ‘who’	laru ‘the one’	swaru ‘someone’	draru ‘someone else’	sparu ‘the same person’	naru ‘no one’	flaru ‘few (people)’	nwaru ‘some (people)’	graru ‘many (people)’	paru ‘everyone’
Inanimate -su	kwasu ‘what’	lasu ‘that’	swasu ‘something’	drasu ‘something else’	spasu ‘the samething’	nasu ‘nothing’	flasu ‘little, few things’	nwasu ‘some things’	grasu ‘much, many things’	pasu ‘everything, all’
Local -ro	kwaro ‘where’	laro ‘there’	swaro ‘somewhere’	draro ‘elsewhere’	sparo ‘the same place’	naro ‘nowhere’	flaro ‘few places’	nwaro ‘some places’	graro ‘many places’	paro ‘everywhere’
Temporal -no	kwano ‘when’	lano ‘then’	swano ‘sometime’	drano ‘elsewhen’	spano ‘the same time’	nano ‘never’	flano ‘rarely’	nwano ‘sometimes’	grano ‘often’	pano ‘always’
Manneral -mo	kwamo ‘how’	lamo ‘thus’	swamo ‘somehow’	dramo ‘another way’	spamo ‘the same way’	namo ‘no way’	flamo ‘few ways’	nwamo ‘some ways’	gramo ‘many ways’	pamo ‘every way’
Quantal Determiner -nta	kwanta ‘how much, how many’	lanta ‘that much’	swanta ‘some’	dranta ‘another amount’	spanta ‘the same amount’	nanta ‘no, none’	flanta ‘little, few’	nwanta ‘some’	granta ‘much, many, a lot of’	panta ‘all’
Quantal Pronoun -ntu	kwantu ‘how much of it’	lantu ‘that much of it’	swantu ‘some of it’	drantu ‘another amount of it’	spantu ‘the same amount of it’	nantu ‘none of it’	flantu ‘little of it’	nwantu ‘some of it’	grantu ‘a lot of it’	pantu ‘all of it’
Quanto-Temporal -ntano	kwantano ‘how long’	lantano ‘that long’	swantano ‘indefinitely’	drantano ‘for another amount of time’	spantano ‘for the same amount of time’	nantano ‘in no time, instantly’	flantano ‘for a short time’	nwantano ‘for a bit’	grantano ‘for a long time’	pantano ‘forever, eternally’
Causal -yo	kwayo ‘why’	layo ‘therefore’	swayo ‘for some reason’	drayo ‘for another reason’	spayo ‘for the same reason’	nayo ‘for no reason’	flayo ‘for few reasons’	nwayo ‘for some reasons’	grayo ‘for many reasons’	payo ‘for every reason’
Qualitative Determiner -ya	kwaya ‘what kind of’	laya ‘that kind of, such’	swaya ‘some kind of’	draya ‘another kind of’	spaya ‘the same kind of’	naya ‘no kind of’	flaya ‘few kinds of’	nwaya ‘some kinds of’	graya ‘many kinds of’	paya ‘all kinds of’
Qualitative Animate Pronoun -yaru	kwayaru ‘what kind of person’	layaru ‘such a person’	swayaru ‘some kind of person’	drayaru ‘another kind of person’	spayaru ‘the same kind of person’	nayaru ‘no kind of person’	flayaru ‘few kinds of people’	nwayaru ‘some kinds of people’	grayaru ‘many kinds of people’	payaru ‘all kinds of people’
Qualitative Inanimate Pronoun -yasu	kwayasu ‘what kind of thing’	layasu ‘such a thing’	swayasu ‘some kind of thing’	drayasu ‘another kind of thing’	spayasu ‘the same kind of thing’	nayasu ‘no kind of thing’	flayasu ‘few kinds of things’	nwayasu ‘some kinds of things’	grayasu ‘many kinds of things’	payasu ‘all kinds of things’

Many of the correlatives are fairly straightforward once you understand the pattern; however, there are some terms which may require additional explanation:

• Swa vs. nwa: In English, these both translate to ‘some’, but the swa-correlatives refer to ‘some’ meaning ‘generic’, ‘random’, or ‘unspecified’, while the nwa-correlatives mean ‘some’ as in ‘a few’, ‘a bit’, ‘an average amount’ - somewhere between fla ‘few’ and gra ‘many’. The general quantal determiner swanta is more or less synonymous with nwa and nwanta, but adds an element of uncertainty.
• The quantitative correlatives - na, fla, nwa, gra, and pa - are synonymous with their quantal determiners - nanta, flanta, nwanta, granta, and panta, respectively. There is no semantic difference between them.
• Fla and poka are synonymous for the most part, but fla is a determiner which precedes the noun, while poka is a generic adjective that follows it.
• As above, gra and muja are synonymous, except that gra is a determiner which precedes the noun, while muja is a generic adjective that follows it.
• The spa-correlatives have a default meaning of ‘same’, but this translation has the specific meaning of ‘exact same, identical, self-same’, whereas the adjective stema translates the sense of ‘same’ meaning a copy that is similar or identical. (Cf. German: spa ‘dasselbe’ vs. stema ‘das Gleiche’.)

A number of particles can be used in conjunction with the correlatives to extend their meaning. They are usually deployed as prefixes.

• du ‘continuous’ Modifies a correlative to describe a continuous, unceasing state, e.g. pano ‘always’ → du-pano ‘constantly’. Contrasts with ku ‘over and over’. (“Will that humming never end?”)
• go ‘future, next’ Modifies a temporal adverb to specify that it occurs in the future, e.g. lano ‘then’ → go-lano ‘then (in the future)’
• ke ‘which’ Converts an interrogative (a “kwa-correlative”) into a relative conjunction, e.g. Su kwaro ste? ‘Where is it?’ → Su ste ke-kwaro tu le mete na su. ‘It is where you put it.’
• ku ‘iterative’ Modifies a correlative to describe repetition, e.g. pano ‘always’ → ku-pano ‘repeated in perpetuity’. Contrasts with du ‘continuously’. (“Will that hammering never end?”)
• la ‘-wise, -like’ Modifies an adverb to create an adjective, e.g. spano ‘at the same time’ → spano-la ‘simultaneous’. (Note that -la is used here as a suffix. It is unrelated to the correlative la.)
• le ‘past, yester-’ Modifies a temporal adverb to specify that it occurs in the past, e.g. nano ‘never’ → le-nano ‘never (before)’. (Compare go-nano ‘never (from now on)’.)
• li ‘there’ Converts a deictic (a “la-correlative”) into a distal, e.g. Mu vule na li-lasu ‘I want that one’ (cf. French cette chose vs. cette chose-là.)
• ni ‘any’ Converts a general (a “swa-correlative”) into an elective, e.g. Swaru ste lare. ‘Someone is there.’ → Laru si-go-le pe se ni-swaru! ‘It could be anyone!’
• tci ‘here’ Converts a deictic (a “la-correlative”) into a proximal, e.g. Mu vule na tci-lasu ‘I want this one’ (cf. French celui vs. celui-ci.)

The Europic correlatives are a closed class, which is to say that the grammar of the language prevents any modification to them aside from what can be done with the particles above. (Other closed sets include pronouns and determiners.)

However, some minor modification became possible in Late Western Europic; certain correlatives were repurposed as nouns or their forms appended to create nuance and meaning where necessary. The following lexemes are not part of canonical vocabulary and are not generally acceptable in formal writing in the 22nd century, but language just keeps on existing whether or not you want it to.

• kwamu (kwamo ‘how’ + substantive ending -u) ‘manner, way’ (synonym: mandru)
• kwayu (kwaya ‘what kind’ + substantive -u) ‘kind, sort, type’ (synonym: modu)

Personal pronouns have no distinction for gender, but they are the only substantive which has a required plural form. There is an animation distinction in the third person. The first person plural has both inclusive and exclusive forms. The possessive of each pronoun is simply the adjectival form of the pronoun, though unlike most adjectives, the possessives are determiners, which precede the noun (phrase) they modify.

Though recommended usage is to hyphenate the pronouns, this is a little more relaxed in practice than the other compounds, especially for the longer forms, like ma-ta-ya-lu~matayalu.

Pronoun	Psn	Poss.	Poss. Pronoun	Object
mu ‘I, me’	1sg	ma ‘my’	ma-lu ‘mine’	na mu ‘me’
mu-tu ‘you & I, we, us’	1+2sg (1du.incl)	ma-ta ‘our’	mata-lu ‘ours, yours & mine’	na mu-tu ‘us’
tu ‘you, thou, thee’	2sg	ta ‘your, thy’	ta-lu ‘yours, thine’	na tu ‘you, thee’
ru ‘he, she, him, her’	3anim.sg	ra ‘his, her’	ra-lu ‘his, hers’	na ru ‘him, her’
su ‘it’	3inan.sg	sa ‘its’	sa-lu ‘its’	na su ‘it’
mu-ya ‘we, us’	1pl.excl	ma-ya ‘our’	maya-lu ‘ours’	na mu-ya ‘us’
mutu-ya ‘you (all) & I, we, us’	1+2pl (1pl.incl)	mata-ya ‘our’	mataya-lu ‘ours, yours & mine’	na mutu-ya ‘us’
tu-ya ‘you’	2pl	ta-ya ‘your’	taya-lu ‘yours’	na tu-ya ‘you’
ru-ya ‘they, them’	3anim.pl	ra-ya ‘their’	raya-lu ‘theirs’	na ru-ya ‘them’
su-ya ‘they, them’	3inan.pl	sa-ya ‘their’	saya-lu ‘theirs’	na su-ya ‘them’

The possessive determiners (‘my’, ‘your’, ‘their’, &c) can be converted to pronouns (‘mine’, ‘yours’, ‘theirs’, &c) with the addition of the pronominal suffix -lu, e.g. ta ‘your’, ta-lu ‘yours’.

Many of the most common indefinite pronouns can be found as part of the Correlatives. The third person personal pronouns ru and su are frequently compounded to form indefinite pronouns ‘-one’ and ‘-thing’.

There is not a lot to be said about nouns. They all take the ending -u, like the other substantives, the pronouns, but they do not have a plural form. Grammatical number can be ignored most of the time, but when it is necessary to indicate plurality, the particle ya is used. Ya usually comes at the end of the noun phrase, after any adjectives, if present. Ya cannot be used in combination with numbers.

The possessive of nouns is formed by bluntly converting them to an adjective by replacing the final -u with -a. As with other adjectives (below), possessives follow the noun they modify. Many possessives can also be constructed by using the preposition de. This is optional with most constructions, but necessary where there is an adjective already modifying the possessive noun (as with the crying child, below).

• the family’s house → mezu kyula or mezu de kyulu.
• John’s cat → gatu Djana or gatu de Djanu.
• the crying child’s doll → puklu de kindu plantranta.

All “peripheral” verb functions, commonly lumped together under the label of “tense,” are indicated by particles which precede the finite verb, i.e. the verb that is being carried out by the associated pronoun or noun (phrase) subject. Tenses (past, future), aspects (perfect, habitual, inceptive, cessative, progressive, &c), moods (subjunctive, conditional), and other verbal particles may combine to create a wide range of nuance.

• ∅ (unmarked) - present
  • Mu ∅ mandjoke na la klebru.
    • ‘I eat the bread.’
• le - past
  • Mu le mandjoke na la klebru.
    • ‘I ate the bread.’
• go - future
  • Mu go mandjoke na la klebru.
    • ‘I will eat the bread.’
• go-le - future in the past
  • Mu go-le mandjoke na la klebru (le-ke ru le re-kweme).
    • ‘I would eat the bread (before he returned).’
  • N.B.: When combining le and go, they always take this order.

There are eight basic aspects, and they can be compounded with each other, with the tenses, and with the moods. The basic aspects are:

• ∅ (unmarked) - perfective, “do.”
  • Mu ∅ mandjoke na klebru.
    • ‘I eat bread.’
• gi - inceptive, “start doing”
  • Mu gi mandjoke na la klebru.
    • ‘I start to eat the bread.’
  • N.B.: The inceptive can also be expressed with the verb gye/gine ‘to start’, e.g. Mu gye mandjoke na la klebru.
• ha - perfect, “have done”
  • Mu ha mandjoke na la klebru.
    • ‘I have eaten the bread.’
• sta - progressive, “to be doing”
  • Mu sta mandjoke na la klebru.
    • ‘I am eating the bread.’
  • N.B.: The progressive can also be expressed with a present participle, either as an adjective or as a verb, e.g. Mu se mandjokanta na la klebru, or Mu mandjokante na la klebru.
• stu - habitual, “usually do”
  • Mu stu mandjoke na klebru me melu.
    • ‘I usually eat bread with honey.’
• djo - immediative, “just did”
  • Mu djo mandjoke na la klebru.
    • ‘I just ate the bread.’
  • N.B.: When used alone, djo is equivalent to djo-le. In the future, it means ‘about to do’ (see djo-go).
• ku - continuative or iterative, “keep doing”
  • Mu ku mandjoke na la klebru.
    • ‘I keep eating the bread.’
• fu - cessative, “stop doing”
  • Mu fu mandjoke na la klebru.
    • ‘I stop eating the bread.’
  • N.B.: The cessative can also be expressed with the verb kede ‘to stop, e.g. Mu kede mandjoke na la klebru.

There are four basic moods, and they can be compounded with each other, with the tenses, and with the aspects. The basic moods are:

• ∅ (unmarked) - indicative, “I do”
  • Mu ∅ mandjoke na klebru.
    • ‘I eat bread.’
• si - subjunctive, “that I do”
  • Mu krede, ke ru si mandjoke na klebru.
    • ‘I think he eats bread.’
• ba - conditional, “would do”
  • Mu ba mandjoke na klebru ye su si se tcoklo-plena.
    • ‘I would eat bread if it were full of chocolate.’
  • N.B.: The conditional ba is ostensibly equivalent to the compound si-go-le. If it implies an “if-clause” (with the conjunction ye), the if-clause will be in the subjunctive. While there is no semantic difference, there is no subjunctive in the second clause when using si-go-le, because the subjunctive is now on the first verb: Mu si-go-le mandjoke na klebru ye su ∅ se tcoklo-plena.
  • N.B.: Unrelated to the conditional or even to verbs, there are two ways to construct the phrase “full of (something).”
    • The first is as seen here: The noun (tcoklu) is prepended to the adjective plena. (Note also that prepended nouns change their final -u to -o.)
    • The second is to join the adjective to the noun with the preposition me, e.g. plena me tcoklu. In this case, plena may also be structured as a verb:
      • La klebru se tcoklo-plena.
      • La klebru se plena me tcoklu.
      • La klebru plene me tcoklu.
• The fourth mood is imperative, which has a slightly different construction. Instead of a particle indicating a command, which may waste valuable milliseconds in a crisis, the imperative is formed by reversing the verb and the subject pronoun and joining them with a hyphen. This has the additional effect of changing the position of the stress in the word.
  • Mandjokè-tu na la klebru.
    • ‘Eat the bread.’
  • Mandjoke-mùtuy na la klebru.
    • ‘Let’s eat the bread.’

There are four basic voices:

• ∅ (unmarked) - active, “do”
  • Mu ∅ mandjoke na la klebru.
    • ‘I eat the bread.’
• ga - passive, “is done”
  • La klebru ga mandjoke (pe mu).
    • ‘The bread is eaten (by me).’
• ski - reflexive, “do to oneself/-selves”
  • Mu-ya ski klore.
    • ‘We hear ourselves.’
• dri - reciprocal, “do to each other”
  • Mu-ya dri klore.
    • ‘We hear each other.’
  • N.B.: Many European languages conflate the reciprocal (which can only be used with a plural subject) with the reflexive. For instance, French Nous nous entendons or German Wir hören uns could mean either ‘We hear each other’ or ‘We hear ourselves.’

The final category of verb functions is that of polarity, and while I can say a bunch of important-sounding words about it, it is very simply forming the negative and interrogative. Verbs are negated with the particle ne. Sentences are made interrogative with the particle kwa.

• ∅ (unmarked) - positive, “do”
  • Mu ∅ mandjoke na la klebru.
    • ‘I eat the bread.’
• ne - negative, “do not”
  • Mu ne mandjoke na la klebru.
    • ‘I do not eat the bread.’
  • NB: Ne is always closest to the verb, preceded by any other particles.
• kwa - interrogative, “is it that…?”
  • Kwa tu vle mandjoke na nwa klebru?
    • ‘Do you want to eat some bread?’
  • NB: Kwa is placed at the beginning of a clause, like a conjunction.
• kwa…ne - negative interrogative, “isn’t it that…?”
  • Kwa tu ne vle mandjoke na ni-nwa klebru?
    • ‘Don’t you want to eat any bread?’

Most of the tenses, aspects, moods, voices, and polarities mentioned above can be compounded to create a myriad of senses. Here is a small sample:

• go-le - future-in-the-past ‘would do’ (as above)
  • Mu go-le mandjoke na la klebru (le-ke ru le re-kweme).
    • ‘I would eat the bread (before he returned).’
• ha-le - pluperfect ‘had done’
  • Mu ha-le mandjoke na la klebru.
    • ‘I had eaten the bread.’
• stu-ku - habitual iterative ‘usually keeps doing’
  • Mu stu-ku mandjoke na la klebru.
    • ‘I usually keep eating the bread.’
• djo-go - immediate future ‘about to do’
  • Mu djo-go mandjoke na la klebru.
    • ‘I am about to eat the bread.’
• ha-sta - perfect continuative ‘has been doing’
  • Mu ha-sta mandjoke na la klebru.
    • ‘I have been eating the bread.’
• ga-ha-go - passive future perfect ‘will have been done’
  • La klebru ga-ha-go mandjoke (pe mu).
    • ‘The bread will have been eaten (by me).’
• si-go-le - subjunctive future anterior ‘would do’
  • Mu si-go-le mandjoke na klebru (ye su si se tcokloplena).
    • ‘I would eat bread (if it were full of chocolate).’
  • NB: Si-go-le is ostensibly interchangeable with ba.
• fu-djo - immediate cessative ‘just stopped doing’
  • Mu fu-djo mandjoke na la klebru.
    • ‘I just stopped eating the bread.’

These are some common examples; there are dozens of possibilities, and many are redundant or unused, but there is a strict order that must be observed when compounding them.

1. The negative particle (ne) always falls closest to the verb.
2. The tenses come next.
   1. Past follows present when both are used (go-le, never **le-go)
3. Tenses are preceded by aspect, which in turn is preceded by mood.
   1. There is not a set order within the tenses and aspects, but there are conventions, e.g. ha-sta is very common, but **sta-ha is never used.
4. The voice particles are mutually exclusive, so they can never be combined with each other (see what I did there?), but they always come before mood, aspect, and tense.
5. The interrogative particle kwa always occurs at the beginning of its clause.

There are several verbs which consist solely of an onset and the verbal ending -e. These are all very frequent or important verbs, and often auxiliary verbs. All short-form verbs also have long-form alternatives. Many short-form verbs later became adverbial particles in Europic’s daughter languages.

NB: Classical calques always use the long forms of verbs even if a short form is available.

be (bate) ‘build’ ble (blive) ‘become’ bre (brute) ‘use’ bye (byuve) ‘live’ ce (calde) ‘should’ de (derte) ‘do, make’ dje (djampe) ‘open’ dre (drove) ‘may’ fe (fere) ‘carry’ fle (fale) ‘be required’ fre (frate) ‘fare’

ge (gane) ‘give’ gre (grade) ‘step’ gye (gine) ‘start’ he (have) ‘have’ hwe (hwalde) ‘look for’ hye (hite) ‘hit’ ke (kepe) ‘get’ kle (klide) ‘close’ kre (krede) ‘believe’ kwe (kweme) ‘come, bring’ le (lese) ‘allow’

lwe (lokwe) ‘speak’ lye (lyame) ‘love’ me (mete) ‘put, place’ mwe (move) ‘move’ pe (pove) ‘can’ ple (platce) ‘like’ pre (prate) ‘understand’ re (rekwe) ‘need, must’ se (heste) ‘be’ ske (sketce) ‘happen’ spe (spete) ‘wait’

ste (stande) ‘there is, there are’ swe (save) ‘know’ tce (tcive) ‘reach’ te (tene) ‘hold’ tre (trente) ‘try’ twe (trewe) ‘trust’ ve (verte) ‘turn’ vle (vule) ‘want’ vre (vrinte) ‘find’ we (verpe) ‘throw’ ye (yite) ‘go, take’

Most adverbs end in -i but this is not as consistent as other parts of speech: This mainly applies to deadjectival adverbs (those derived from adjectives).

Prepositions are considered a sub-type of adverb. All prepositions have a C(C)V structure, but they may end with any vowel. Here are a few old standards.

bi ‘at, by’ bo ‘about’ bro ‘related to’ byu ‘beyond’ da ‘to, towards’ de ‘of’ dji ‘until’ du ‘during’ fli ‘facing’ fo ‘source of’

fra ‘from’ go ‘after’ gre ‘throughout’ ka ‘against’ ko ‘because of’ kri ‘around’ le ‘before’ lo ‘along’ me ‘with’ mi ‘between’

na ‘(accusative)’ no ‘in’ nya ‘without’ pe ‘via, by, with’ po ‘on top of’ pra ‘among’ pro ‘for’ ska ‘out(side) of’ se ‘since’ so ‘below’

spi ‘above’ sti ‘instead of’ ti ‘behind’ tra ‘through’ tro ‘across’ va ‘in front of’ vi ‘touching’

Many prepositions can be modified by the suffix -tri to differentiate an active meaning from their default static. This suffix is roughly equivalent to Esperanto’s use of the akuzativo with certain prepositions, or in some cases, the English suffix -ward(s). While it mainly applies to prepositions, -tri can also be affixed to certain nouns. Some other prepositions can be compounded to create additional meanings or nuance. Here are some of the most common prepositional compounds:

bi-tri ‘up to’ da-tri ‘toward’ di-tri ‘apart’ fra-no¹ ‘out of’

hemo-tri ‘home(ward)’ kri-tri ‘around’ lo-tri ‘along’ no-tri ‘into, inward’

po-tri ‘onto’ re-tri ‘back’ ska-tri ‘out of’ so-tri ‘down’

spi-tri ‘up’ ti-tri ‘backward’ tra-tri ‘through’ va-tri ‘forward’

¹ Fra-no and ska-tri are generally synonymous, though the latter has additional semantic range, such as ‘to the outside of’.

“Particle” is a very vague term, even moreso than “adverb”—already the proverbial junk drawer of the parts of speech. Most particles indicate verbal tenses, aspects, and moods, though a few may modify other parts of speech. (The particle ya is probably better classified as an adjective, but here it is—whaddya gonna do about it?) The verbal particles have already been covered in Verbs, above; some other particles include:

• ke ‘which’ (Creates a relative conjunction from a kwa-correlative.)
• li ‘there’ (Indicates distal deixis.)
• na (Indicates a direct object. Really considered a preposition.)
• ni ‘any’ (Creates an elective from a swa-correlative.)
• tci ‘here’ (Indicates proximal deixis.)
• ya ‘-(e)s’ (Indicates the plural. May be considered an adjective. Never used with a number.)

The final category of “Can it be another adverb?” is the conjunction. Perhaps also particles, these are set aside because they always occur at the beginning of a clause. Many of the conjunctions are the old standards we know and love - “and, or, but, if…” but, being an auxiliary language, there are also a number of specialized conjunctions among these. In particular, Chrysanthi made use of several “logic gates” for the conjunctions, so, for example, there are different words to translate ‘or’ where both of the elements that it joins can be true - dro (‘and/or’ ~ ‘x or y or both’) compared to ‘or’ where those elements are mutually exclusive - dwa (‘or’ ~ ‘x or y but not both’).

Most conjunctions by default are phrasal - that is, they join two elements within a single clause (klebru wa brumblu ‘bread and butter’, pe teru dwa pe maru ‘by land or by sea’), but they can be made clausal with the addition of the affix -ke. Clausal conjunctions separate two complete clauses: Those minimally containing a subject and a verb (Ruya le mandjoke na klebru wa brumblu, wa-ke le bevoke na vinu. ‘They ate bread and butter and drank wine.”)

In addition to converting phrasal conjunctions to clausal ones, -ke can also be used to form a number of conjunctions from prepositions, e.g. compare dji la martu ‘until the morning’ to dji-ke ru vekable ‘until he wakes up’.

be ‘but’ dji-ke ‘until’ dro ‘and/or (phrasal)’ dro-ke ‘and/or (clausal)’ du-ke ‘while, as’ dwa ‘xor (phrasal)’ dwa-ke ‘xor (clausal)’ go-ke ‘after’ ke ‘that (subordinate)’ kwa ‘whether, if’

kwasi ‘as if, like, as though’ layo ‘because’ le-ke ‘before’ nwe ‘and not, but not (phrasal)’ nyu ‘nor, neither (phrasal)’ nyu-ke ‘nor, neither (clausal)’ pro-ke ‘in order to’ wa ‘and, also (phrasal)’ wa-ke ‘and, also (clausal)’ ye ‘if’